Bitter kola and kola nut use and their effect on treatment outcome on People Living with HIV at a Military Hospital in Benue state Nigeria: Bitter kola (Garcinia) and Cola nut (Cola nitida among PLWHIV

Introduction Bitter Kola (Garcinia Kola) and kola nut, contains substances attributed to numerous effects on humans including anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic properties, anti-infective and caffeinism. This study explores Bitter kola and kola nut use and its impact on treatment outcome on People Living with HIV (PLWHIV). Methods: The study was conducted at a Military Hospital in Nigeria. An analytical cross-sectional study was done using questionnaire among 700 HIV-positive clients selected using simple random sampling. Data were collected by researcher and three trained assistants. Chi-square test and binary logistic regression were used for identifying associations and predictors, respectively. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: Findings show that 260 (63.6%) and 179 (25.6%) have ever and currently used Bitter kola/Kola nut, respectively. Also, 14 (7.8%) used Bitter kola/Kola nut alone while 165 (92.2%) used it in addition to other substances, especially with alcohol 123 (68.7%). Bitter kola use was associated with age (p = 0.037), gender (p < 0.001), occupation (p = 0.001), and number of children (p < 0.011). Identified predictors were being a female (AOR 0.79; 95% CI 0.08-0.92) and earning <18,000 Naira (AOR 2.91; 95% CI 2.03-21.54). There was no association of Bitter kola/kola nut use with CD4 count and viral load suppression. Conclusion: Though Kola nut and Bitter kola use was high as in the general population we have not found any effect on treatment outcome among PLWHIV. This calls for more research to ascertain if there are other possible beneficial effects on PLWHIV.

Modulation in airway smooth muscle reactivity and improvement in lung function of cigarette smokers and passive non-smokers following garcinia kola treatment

Inhalation of tobacco smoke is a major risk factor for the development of airway hyperreactivity (AHR) in non-cigarette smokers and increase respiratory distress in smokers. Garcinia kola has been linked to smooth muscle relaxation and may ameliorate obstruction and resistance to airflow. This study examined the effect of Garcinia kola on airflow and reactivity of the airway smooth muscles (ASM) of asymptomatic regular cigarette smokers (CS) and passive non-smokers (PNS) following 10 minutes cigarette smoking and exposure to cigarette smoke. Sixty apparently healthy male undergraduates comprising cigarette smokers and non-smokers volunteered as subjects. Changes in peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) in L/min in CS and PNS was measured with Spirometer before and after 10 minutes of smoking and/or exposure to cigarette smoke. Thereafter, half the population of CS and PNS were given G. kola (200 mg/kg body weight) and PEFR measured at intervals of 30 minutes for a maximum of 90 minutes. Peak expiratory flow rate significantly decreased (p < 0.05) following 10 minutes of smoking and exposure to smoke in both CS and PNS, however, G. kola ingestion marginally increased PEFR values significantly at 30, 60 and 90 minutes intervals. Comparatively, increase in PEFR was greater in PNS than in CS (P < 0.05) treated with G. kola and climaxed at 60 minutes. Conclusively, cigarette smoking and exposure to cigarette smoke compromise lung function with a decrease in peak expiratory flow rate. G. kola treatment significantly reversed this trend, cleared the airways, enhanced airflow and improved lung function

Comparison of antioxidant effects of kolaviron and vitamin C interventions on testicular structures following nevirapine administration in Sprague-Dawley rats / Comparación de los efectos antioxidantes en la intervención con kolaviron y vitamina C sobre las estructuras testiculares después de la administración de nevirapina en ratas Sprague-Dawley

Testicular toxicity has been implicated in highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) treatment. Hence there is need to identify an effective antioxidant product that can alleviate testicular necrosis due to HAART administration. Forty eight adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were used in this study. The animals were divided into eight (8) groups: A-H (n= 6). Group A animals received normal saline as the control; Group B was given Nevirapine (Nv); Group C was given Kolaviron (Kv); Group D was given vitamin C; Group E was given Nv and Kv; Group F was given Nv and Vitamin C; Group G was given Nv for 56 d and Kv for 28 d serving as a withdrawal group; Group H was given corn oil. Nv, Kv and Vit. C were given at 1.54, 200 and 250 (mg·kg)/bw respectively while all administrations were through oral gavage. The body weights were taken every other day. Thereafter, they were anaesthetized with halothane. The testes were excised, weighed, fixed in Bouin's fluid and stained with H&E while the epididymes removed for semen fluid analyses. The results showed a significant (P<0.05) decrease in sperm motility in group E (Nevirapine + kolaviron) when compared with group F (Nevirapine + Vitamin C) while Sperm count was not significantly different (P>0.05) across the groups. The testicular histoarchitectural studies revealed indistinct spermatogonia, necrotic interstititial endocrine cells in the altered interstitial space, fragmented spermatids, atrophy of mature spermatocytes, degenerated germ cells, obliterated seminiferous tubules lumen, undifferentiated spermatogonia and cellular debris in the somniferous tubules lumen of nevirapine administered group but normal across the other groups. In the testis, there were no significant reduction in SOD, Catalase and GPx activities but a significant decrease in GST activity (P<0.001) when group E was compared with group F. In conclusion, vitamin C presents a better remediation in nevirapine induced spermiotoxicity compared to kolaviron in Sprague-Dawley rats.

La toxicidad testicular ha sido implicada en la terapia antirretroviral altamente activa (TARAA). Por lo tanto existe la necesidad de identificar un producto antioxidante eficaz que pueda aliviar la necrosis testicular en la administración de la TARAA. Cuarenta y ocho ratas macho Sprague-Dawley adultas fueron utilizadas. Los animales se dividieron en ocho (8) grupos: AH (n= 6). Grupo A, animales recibieron solución salina normal como el control; Grupo B, recibió Nevirapina (Nv); Grupo C, recibió Kolaviron (Kv); Grupo D, recibió vitamina C; Grupo E, recibió Nv y Kv; Grupo F, recibió Nv y vitamina C; Grupo G, recibió Nv durante 56 d y Kv por 28 d como un grupo de retirada; Grupo H, recibió aceite de maíz. Nv, Kv y Vit. C se administraron en dosis de 1, 54, 200 y 250 (mg · kg) de peso corporal respectivamente; todas las administraciones fueron por sonda oral. Los pesos corporales se tomaron cada dos días. A partir de ese momento los animales fueron anestesiados con halotano. Los testículos fueron extirpados, pesados y fijados en solución de Bouin y teñidos con H&E, mientras que el epidídimo se retiró para analizar el semen. Los resultados mostraron un descenso (p<0,05) en la motilidad de los espermatozoides en el grupo E (Nevirapina + Kolaviron) en comparación con el grupo F (Nevirapina + vitamina C), mientras que el recuento espermático no mostró diferencias significativas (P>0,05) entre los grupos. El estudio de la histoarquitectura testicular reveló espermatogonias indiferenciadas, con células intersticiales necróticas en el espacio intersticial y espermátidas fragmentadas. Además, en el grupo que recibió Nevirapina mostró espermatocitos maduros atrofiados, degeneración de células germinales, lumen de los túbulos seminíferos obliterados, espermatogonias indiferenciadas y restos celulares en el lumen de los tubulos seminíferos. En el resto de los grupos los resultados fueron normales. En el testículo hubo una reducción significativa en las actividades de la superóxido dismutasa, catalasa y glutatión peroxidasa, pero una disminución significativa en la actividad glutatión S-transferasa (P <0,001) al comparar los grupo E y F.

Antimalarial potential of kolaviron, a biflavonoid from Garcinia kola seeds, against Plasmodium berghei infection in Swiss albino mice

OBJECTIVE@#To investigate the antimalarial potential of kolaviron (KV), a biflavonoid fraction from Garcinia kola seeds, against Plasmodium berghei (P. berghei) infection in Swiss albino mice.@*METHODS@#The study consists of seven groups of ten mice each. Groups I, II and III were normal mice that received corn oil, KV1 and chloroquine (CQ), respectively. Groups IV, V, VI and VII were infected mice that received corn oil, CQ, KV1 and KV2, respectively. CQ, KV1 and KV2 were given at 10-, 100- and 200-mg/kg daily, respectively for three consecutive days.@*RESULTS@#Administration of KV1 and KV2 significantly (P<0.05) suppressed P. berghei-infection in the mice by 85% and 90%, respectively, while CQ produced 87% suppression relative to untreated infected group after the fifth day of treatment. Also, KV2 significantly (P<0.05) increased the mean survival time of the infected mice by 175%. The biflavonoid prevented a drastic reduction in PCV from day 4 of treatment, indicating its efficacy in ameliorating anaemia. Significant (P<0.05) oxidative stress assessed by the elevation of serum and hepatic malondialdehydewere observed in untreated P. berghei-infected mice. Specifically, serum and hepatic malondialdehyde levels increased by 93% and 78%, respectively in the untreated infected mice. Furthermore, antioxidant indices, viz; superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-s-transferase, gluathione peroxidase and reduced gluathione decreased significantly (P<0.05) in the tissues of untreated P. berghei-infected mice. KV significantly (P<0.05) ameliorated the P. berghei-induced decrease in antioxidant status of the infected mice.@*CONCLUSIONS@#This study shows that kolaviron, especially at 200 mg/kg, has high antimalarial activities in P. berghei-infected mice, in addition to its known antioxidant properties.

Some bioactive potentials of two biflavanols isolated from Garcinia kola on cadmium-induced alterations of raw U937 cells and U937-derived macrophages

OBJECTIVE@#To investigate the abilities of two flavonoids - Garcinia biflavanol-1 (GB-1) and Garcinia biflavanol-2 (GB-2) from Garcinia kola (G. kola) in reducing cadmium-induced effects on raw U937 cells and U937-derived macrophages.@*METHODS@#Macrophage U937 cells were incubated with cadmium followed by treatment with the flavonoids and cell viability assessed via trypan blue staining. In the other experiment, the U937 cells were transformed to the macrophage form and treated with cadmium in order to activate them. The cells were later incubated with the flavonoids and finally the supernatant of each cell culture was analysed for the secretion of nitric oxide, catalyse activity, and the release of tumour necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 and interleukin-2 as indices of macrophage activation. Quercetin (a flavonol) was used as the reference flavonoid in all experiments.@*RESULTS@#It revealed that the flavonoids significantly increased the viability of the cells and also reduced the cadmium-induced activation of the macrophage cells in a concentration-dependent manner. The flavanols GB-1 and GB-2 possessed higher activities than quercetin in all cases (P<0.05). Garcinia biflavanol-2 possessed a higher bioactivity than GB-1 significantly (P<0.05).@*CONCLUSIONS@#In addition to corroborating the several reported importance of G. kola as a potential neutraceutical and pharmacological condiment, the study also clearly indicates the role hydroxylation especially at the 3'- position of polyphenols could play in enhancing bioactivities of flavonoids.

Physiological Mechanisms Underlying the Use of Garcinia Kola Heckel in the Treatment of Asthma

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Anticariogenic potentials of clove, tobacco and bitter kola

OBJECTIVE@#To investigate three tropical plant materials - clove seeds [Syzygium aromaticum (S. aromaticum)], bitter kola fruits [Garcinia kola (G. kola)] and tobacco leaves (Nicotiana species) as potential targeted killers of Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans), a cavity-causing bacterium (gram-positive, facultative anaerobe) that resides in a multispecies microbial community (dental plaque) for the treatment of dental caries (tooth decay).@*METHODS@#Thirty one (31) teeth samples were collected from patients with obvious signs of tooth decay (swollen gum, weak or fallen tooth, etc.) using sterile swab sticks. These samples were collected from two major dental clinics in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria and investigated by spread inoculation onto sterile blood agar and Mueller Hinton agar (MHA) respectively and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. The discrete colonies obtained were further re-inoculated onto sterile Mitis salivarius agar (MSA) plates and incubated as above. The isolates were characterized by gram staining and catalase test. Tobacco leaves, clove seeds and bitter kola fruits were ground into powder, extracted with three different solvents (n-hexane, hot water and ethanol), filtered, dried and stored in clean containers, corked and kept until used. The plant extracts were investigated for phytochemistry, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum cidal concentration (MCC) and compared with some conventional antibiotics commonly used against tooth decay. Antibiotic sensitivity test was also carried out. The results were statistically analyzed.@*RESULTS@#The extracts showed varied phytochemical composition but most abundantly the flavonoids. Our result also shows that females (16) have more tooth decay than males (15) and that 16 samples were very bloody while 15 were slightly bloody. The microbial characterization showed that 18 samples were catalase-positive indicating the presence of S. mutans while 13 were catalase-negative suspected to be Staphylococcus spp. The Gram reaction confirmed 13 Gram-negative and 18 Gram-positive organisms. The n-hexane extract had the best antimicrobial activity followed by the ethanol and lastly hot water. MIC showed that n-hexane clove extract had the largest inhibition zone diameter, followed by bitter kola extract and lastly tobacco extract. The antibiotic sensitivity test credited ciprofloxacin the best because it exhibited broad spectrum of action.@*CONCLUSIONS@#Since the n-hexane extract of clove seeds demonstrated preferential growth-inhibitory activity against the causal cariogenic pathogens (S. mutans) in dental caries, we therefore, report here that clove extract be henceforth considered as a potential ingredient in toothpaste preparation.

The microstructural effects of aqueous extract of Garcinia kola (Linn) on the hippocampus and cerebellum of malnourished mice

<p><b>OBJECTIVE</b>To assess the neuroprotective effects of aqueous extract of Garcinia kola on neurotoxin administered malnourished mice adopting histological procedure.</p><p><b>METHODS</b>The study was carried out using thirty-two adult malnourished mice which were randomly assigned into four groups (n=8): A, B, C and D. Group A served as control, while the other groups served as the experimental groups. Animals in group A were fed malnourished diet ad libitum and given water liberally. Animals in group B were administered with 3-Nitropropionic acid (3-NP) (neurotoxin) only at 20 mg/kg body weight, group C were given only Garcinia kola extracts, and group D were pre-treated with Garcinia kola extracts at 200 mg/kg for seven days prior to administration of neurotoxin at 20 mg/kg body weight. After three days of neurotoxins administration in the relevant groups, the brains were excised and fixed in formal calcium for histological processing.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>The study showed that hippocampal and cerebellar neurons of animals in group B exhibited some cellular degeneration and blood vessel blockage, which were not seen in groups A, C and D. Cresyl violet staining was least intense in group B than in groups A, C and D. Despite the fact that animals in group D has equal administration of 3-Nitropropionic acid concentration, there were no traces of neural degeneration as it was evidenced in group B.</p><p><b>CONCLUSIONS</b>It is concluded that Garcinia kola has protective effects on the neurons of the hippocampus and cerebellum of malnourished mice.</p>

Efficacy of garcinia Kola 0.5 aqueous eye drops in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension

PURPOSE:To evaluate the intraocular pressure (IOP) lowering efficacy of Garcinia kola 0.5% aqueous solution eye drops in patients with newly diagnosed primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension (POAG/OH).MATERIALS AND METHODS: A randomized, double-masked, multicenter, active-controlled prospective study. Patients who met the inclusion criteria were randomly assigned in equal numbers to receive Timolol 0.5% eye drops as a control medication (A = Group 1 eyes) or Garcinia kola 0.5% eye drops as the study medication (B = Group 2 eyes). All drops were instilled at 6 am and 6 pm daily. Goldman applanation tonometry was performed at 9 am, 12 pm and 3 pm at baseline, week-6, week-12 and week-24 visits. Voluntary and actively elicited reports of adverse events were documented. The mean change in IOP over 24 weeks was the primary outcome measure. Both groups were compared for statistically significant differences at all visits. A P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.RESULTS:A total of 178 patients were randomly assigned to G. kola and Timolol groups. At baseline there were no differences in mean IOP between groups, based on age, sex, or diagnosis. At the end of the study period (24(th) week), the mean (+/- SD) reduction in IOP was 12.93 +/- 2.3 mmHg (47.8% +/- 0.8% reduction) in G. Kola group and 13.09 +/- 2.8 mm Hg (48.2% +/- 1.03% reduction) in the Timolol group (P > 0.05). Adverse events were mild in nature with no statistically significant differences between groups (P > 0.05).CONCLUSIONS:Garcinia kola ophthalmic solution significantly reduces IOP as compared to baseline. The IOP lowering effect of both treatments was equivalent

Histopathological studies on the effects of the ethanolic extract of the fruits of Garcinia kola on selected organs of the dog

The ethanolic extract of Garcinia kola was administered to dogs to investigate the possible effects on selected organs of the dog. Two doses of the extract (500mg/Kg and lOOOmg/Kg) were daily administered to the test animals for a period of 6 weeks. A dose related response was observed in the severity of histopathological changes observed in the testes, liver, kidney and small intestine of animals in the test groups. Despite the reported potentially beneficial effects of Garcinia kola, its use as a medicinal plant should be with great caution.

Fue administrado a perros extracto etanólico de Garcinia kola, para investigar los posibles efectos sobre determinados órganos. Dos dosis del extracto (500mg/Kg y lOOOmg/Kg) fueron administradas diariamente a los animales durante un periodo de 6 semanas. Se observó una relación de la dosis con la gravedad en la respuesta de los cambios histopatológicos observados en testículos, hígado, riñón e intestino delgado de los animales. A pesar de los informes sobre efectos potencialmente beneficiosos de Garcinia kola, su uso como planta medicinal debe ser con mucha precaución.

Biocidal activity of partially purified fractions from methanolic extract of Garcinia kola (Heckel) seeds on bacterial isolates

The in vitro antibacterial activity of crude methanolic extract of the seeds of Garcinia kola was investigated. The extracts exhibited antibacterial activities with zones of inhibition ranging from 10 mm to 25 mm. Theminimum inhibitory concentration of the diethyl ether fraction was between 0.313 and 5.0 mg/ml, while that of butanol fraction varied from 0.157 to 5.0 mg/ml. The butanol fraction killed about 77% of Bacillus anthracis and 79% of Escherichia coli cells within 120 min at a concentration of 5.0 mg/ml. Protein leakage from the B. anthracis and E. coli cells when exposed to the butanol and diethyl ether fractions was observed. We conclude that Garcinia kola seed extract has a broad spectrum antibacterial activity, with the butanol and diethyl ether fractions being bactericidal as exemplified by the killing rate and protein leakage regimes, whichsuggest cell membrane disruption as a mechanism of action of the extract.

Assessment of the antioxidant potential of alcoholic extract of Garcinia Kola seed in alcohol induced testicular oxidate stress in Sprague-Dawley rat

The action of alcoholic extract of Garcinia kola (G. kola) seed as an antioxidant was investigated in alcohol induced testicular oxidative stress. 40 adult Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 100 - 150g were used for the study. These were divided into a control and 7 experimental groups of 6 rats each. These were fed one of alcohol; G. kola or alcohol and G. kola combined daily by gastric gavage. At the end of eight weeks of experiment; the animals were sacrificed after anaesthesia; Histological study (H et E); sperm count; assay for testicular Malondialdehyde (MDA) and Catalase activity were determined. Results obtained revealed testicular lesion in the groups that received 500mg/kgw of extract; and 500mg/kgw with 2g of ethanol (concurrently) for 8 weeks.Slightly reduced sperm count was observed in ethanol/ extract (500mg/kg) combined group. There was increased testicular MDA and increased catalase activity in the groups that received 2g of ethanol only and 2g of ethanol concurrently with 500mg/kg extract. G. kola seed extract has a dose dependent antioxidant activity but may not be effective in alleviating alcohol induced testicular oxidative stress

Assessment of the antioxidant potential of alcoholic extract of Garcinia kola seed in alcohol induced testicular oxidative stress in sprague-dawley rat

The action of alcoholic extract of Garcinia kola (G. kola) seed as an antioxidant was investigated in alcohol induced testicular oxidative stress. 40 adult Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 100 - 150g were used for the study. These were divided into a control and 7 experimental groups of 6 rats each. These were fed one of alcohol; G. kola or alcohol and G. kola combined daily by gastric gavage. At the end of eight weeks of experiment; the animals were sacrificed after anaesthesia; Histological study (H et E); sperm count; assay for testicular Malondialdehyde (MDA) and Catalase activity were determined. Results obtained revealed testicular lesion in the groups that received 500mg/kgw of extract; and 500mg/kgw with 2g of ethanol (concurrently) for 8 weeks. Slightly reduced sperm count was observed in ethanol/ extract (500mg/kg) combined group. There was increased testicular MDA and increased catalase activity in the groups that received 2g of ethanol only and 2g of ethanol concurrently with 500mg/kg extract. G. kola seed extract has a dose dependent antioxidant activity but may not be effective in alleviating alcohol induced testicular oxidative stress